IMPLEMENTATION OF ELECTRONIC RECORDS MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

An electronic records management system is a combination of electronic hardware and software programs that work together to enhance the management of records during their entire life cycle in an organization. Records refer to the documents that are created, received or managed in an institution and they portray evidence of occurrence of an activity. A record can very easily depict the picture of a document. A record is however, different from a document in the sense that a document is just a means by which a record is created. The notion of a record goes further by including the role played by the particular document in the daily running or an organization’s activities and business transactions and even its effects on such events (Kakoma, I. and Zeleza, 2003).

Developing countries on the other hand have some common characteristics that make the implementation of electronic records management systems problematic and confusing all at the same time. Some of the causes of the confusing state of affairs in implementing electronic records management systems include the following:

1.      Versatility of information technology

Records management systems are the embodiments of information technology in the field of information management (Adrian Brown et al, 2009). Information technology is itself dynamic and versatile by nature. This means that requirements for developing and maintaining systems keep changing all the time and many of the developing countries do not have the capacity required to keep up with these constant changes. Those institutions that have managed to implement records management systems always have to content with this. Those that are yet to implement them have to seriously consider how they will handle the issue. The effect is that many are discouraged to implement records management systems.

2.      Over reliance  on imported technology

Many institutions in developing countries lack the capacity to research, design, develop and test their own technologies including records management systems. The effect is that they end up importing technologies made in western countries. Such systems have been researched, designed, developed and tested in entirely foreign environments that are totally differently from those in the developing countries. The end result is that these systems do not perform as expected when they are implemented by institutions in developing countries. This is most likely to discourage those institutions that have not yet implemented records management systems.

3.      Antagonism between electronic and print resources

Most of the users of information materials are torn between using electronic resources and their print counterparts. The reason is that most of them have a personal preference for electronic resources but are forced by circumstances to use the print materials for reasons that some include academic and the need to use more reliable sources. Electronic records management systems are also reliant on power (whose availability is not always assured in developing countries), while the manual systems are always available at all times. Such observations by institutions that intend to implement electronic records management systems are likely to leave them in a more confused state of affairs.

4.      Digital divide

According to Wikipedia (the online encyclopedia), digital divide refers to the gap existing between individuals, households, businesses and geographic areas in terms of digital information literacy. Many developing countries lag far behind in terms of digital literacy among their populations. This implies that many institutions have an uphill task of educating their clients and the society at large on digital literacy to enable them to use information systems that also includes records management systems. Due to such low levels of digital literacy in developing countries, many institutions are therefore not able to effectively implement records management systems in their work places. Those that have implemented them may end up having very few users and therefore reducing the importance of such systems.

5.      Technophobia

Technophobes are people who are afraid of technology especially that which is new and most likely to bring about workplace revolution or changes. Technophobes are afraid of what might happen to their jobs, they lack skills to make effective communication and use of computer systems and are even afraid to make use of technological equipment. Some forms of technophobia could be inborn (Harry Bouwman, 2005). Instances of technophobia are increased by an environment that has had very little or no technological experiences at all. This is usually the case in most of the developing countries like in Africa. Technophobia does not only exist among the intended users of information systems such as records management systems, but also among the top managers of institutions who are expected to take charge of the implementation process. Such cases will leave the whole process in a bad state and attempting to implement a records management system under such an environment would be close to impossible.

6.      Infrastructural bottlenecks

Information systems work best when there is a supportive infrastructure behind such systems. Support infrastructure for a system like a records management system include power supplies and a networked environment to help avoid data duplication across various departments of an institutions among others. Many developing countries lack these basic infrastructural setups. Power supply systems are not reliable and systems are always down because of lack of power. Such infrastructural bottlenecks always work to reduce the effectiveness of installed systems and many would rather resort to having the old manual systems that they are used to having. It also discourages those who intend to implement records management systems.

7.      Limited budgets

The priority order in many developing countries is not always inclined to developing information access and usability. The statement is also true in many of their institutions. Budget allocations to the records management departments are merely meant to sustain their own existence. Ambitious projects such as implementing a records management system may not be able to see the light of day because there is simply no money to finance them. Information systems are expensive in terms of purchasing equipment, hiring skilled labor and setting up of support infrastructure such as a network for sharing resources. Many institutions will find such expenses to be too costly for their operations and implementing them is always the last option if at all they are considered.

8.      Security vulnerabilities

The existing technology today is more advanced than ever before. There exist very advanced techniques to fight and curb security threats from various sources. However, hackers and attack programs have also evolved with the same technologies and various security threats still pose a big challenge to institutions that intend or have already implemented records management systems. Records management on its own is a security sensitive exercise. Losing an organization’s records or leakage of certain information to unintended audience could be catastrophic. More reliable protection solutions like firewalls and anti-virus programs are usually proprietary and commercial. Some are very expensive to purchase. Security threats also exist in very many forms and always evolving with time such that it is difficult to keep track of them and control them. Such reasons are discouraging to institutions that intend to implement a records management system due to the vulnerability that their records will be exposed to.

9.      Inadequate skills

Literacy levels in many developing countries are low. Skilled personnel are likewise, very few. The impact of this on institutions is that they may not always have the required manpower to implement systems like a records management system. Such a factor coupled with high staff turn –over (available manpower may not always be willing to stay or work with the same institution) will always be discouraging especially if sensitive information is involved.

10.   Lack of supportive government policies

Many developing countries especially those in Africa got their independence barely 50 years ago. Most of them have not been able to enact necessary laws that regulate the implementation and use of such systems as records management systems. Laws and regulations controlling the records management itself may not even be in existence both at a national and even at the institutional level. Implementing a records management system under such an environment may even lead to more confusion. Regulations will help to deal with such sensitive issues as copyright, censorship, definitions and conflict resolutions if they arise.

CONCLUSION

Many institutions in developing countries have found themselves in a confusing state of affairs. This is mainly attributed to problems that most of them encounter in other sectors of economic, social and political development. The state of confusion therefore has worked to limit the implementation of records management systems in many institutions and organizations in the developing countries. However, there are many opportunities that these institutions can take advantage of and salvage the situation. This would greatly help to escalate the development and implementation of records management systems in many of the developing countries.

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REFERENCES

Adrian Brown et al. Preserving Electronic Records.London;  International Records Manamegement Trust, 2009.

At the crossroads: ICT policy making in East Africa. Edited by Florence E. Etta and Laurent Elder. Nairobi: EAEP. 2005

Bouwman, Harry. Information and communication technology in organizations. London: Sage Publications. 2005.

Kakoma, I. and Zeleza, P.T. Science and technology in Africa. Asmara: Africa World press. 2003.

PROBLEMS FACED IN ARCHIVES AND RECORDS MANAGEMENT IN KENYA

INTRODUCTION

Archives and records management practice, like many other disciplines and practices in Kenya, was born of the onset of British colonialism during the early periods of the 20^th century. Records are any recorded information in a reproducible form created, maintained and used by an individual, or organization. They act as a source of evidence of activities, transactions or decisions being made by their owners in the course of their day-to–day activities and operations. Certain kinds of records bear an enduring value either to their creators, holders or even the general public at large. For this reason, they may be passed on from ordinary record centers or registries to an archival facility. Thus, archives apart from being a physical housing units, they are also those special records of enduring value that are deemed fit for permanent preservation. This is for the purposes of research, referencing and for their enduring value.

The historical development of archives and records management practices in Kenya has however, faced numerous challenges that we can analyze in two distinct phases that include the colonial era and the post colonial era. In as much as the two phases may be distinct, some of those challenges experienced during the colonial era remained persistent and poured into the post colonial era alike.

THE COLONIAL ERA.

1. The problem of oral traditions.

As mentioned earlier on, the concept and practice of archives and records management in Kenya is as recent as the period around 1900. Kenyans of the pre-colonial period mainly relied on oral traditions and for that reason, most of their transactions were conducted in a similar way. This posed a challenge to early records management practitioners in the sense that major activities conducted by Africans were not documented. Memory of such major events and occurrences were kept through naming of children, associating events with seasons, holding ceremonies and planting of trees among other objects and practices. These practices did not give a detailed account of an activity as a record would. Even a story told by the finest of all story tellers would still lack the precision, detail and authenticity that a record would provide.

Absence of documented information in colonial Kenya was made worse by the fact that the colonial secretariat offices in Nairobi were consumed in a fire in 1939 thus, virtually destroying all the central government’s records (Mnjama, 2003).

2. Absence of an archival institution

For a very long period of time, Kenya did not have either a public records office or an archival institution. Very low priority was accorded to the practice of proper records management. This was also the case not only in Kenya but also in many other African countries at the time. For instance in Nigeria, the colonial secretary in England in 1914 sent a circular to the colony expressing his concern for records preservation. The circular requested for a brief report as to the existing arrangements for the preservation and custody of the older government records and also advised that appropriate steps be taken to ensure safe keeping and preservation of the records in question (Ukwu,1995). The same was replicated in here in Kenya whereby in 1929, all administrators were asked through  a circular to protect records from being destroyed by insects, rats, dust and loses through theft. Responses returned did not indicate any positive interest or attitude towards records management and we may therefore deduce that those in the political class accorded very low priority to matters pertaining to records and archives management. For this reason, many would-be archives were lost or destroyed.

 At this time, despite the great value attached to those early records, most administrators and people of the political class did not feel the need for any records and archives administration policies and programs.

3. Inadequate skills and high staff turn-over.

The early practitioners in the field of archives and records management did not have any basic skills pertaining to records and archives preservation. Their practice was done through trial and error efforts before the senior administrators began to feel the need for proper records and archives management and preservation. This condition was made worse by the fact that there were no colleges and institutions and if there were, they did not the capacity to train professional record managers and archivists. East Africa’s first institution to train professional librarians, archivists and other information management professionals was Makerere University in Uganda. Thus, all trainees before then had to be sent abroad and for an alternative, foreigners had to be sourced from overseas in their place.

However, this did not ease the problem of personnel at all. Once these new professionals came back to Kenya, their skills were considered by many as too unique, special and rare to be merely spent in archives and records management. In a very short while, they would be preyed upon by the more dynamic and lucrative private sector leaving archives and records management to the junior untrained clerks, again. The problem of high staff turn-over only started to ease in Kenya after Moi University opened up its school of information science in 1985a.

4. Inadequate funding

The problem of high staff turn-over mentioned above can also be partly attributed to the problem of inadequate funding. The archives and records management department may not be as financially intensive as other departments in an organization or government, however, this does not therefore mean that it can do with just any amount of money allocated to it. It too like the other departments requires adequate funding to enable it to efficiently carry out its functions and operations. This is a problem that was not only experienced during the colonial era but was passed on even to today’s Kenya National Archives and Documentation Service. Payment of employee’s salary, purchase of modern preservation equipment and chemicals among other day-to-day activities that facilitate records and archives preservation are vital activities that call for proper adequate funding to enable the institution to achieve its objectives. Low salaries to the employees especially those who are qualified professionals is demoralizing and easily leads to high rates of brain drain and personnel turn-over in the profession. For this reason, the public archives and records management practice is abandoned with unqualified personnel thus suffering from inefficiency and ineffectiveness.

5. Absence of collaborative and cooperative efforts.

During the colonial era the few existing institutions did not have the capacity to engage in regional and international organizations and associations in the field of archives and records management. Such associations include the International Council on Archives (ICA) established in 1950 through a UNESCO initiative as a world body for archival policies and development; the Association of Commonwealth Archivists and Records Managers and a more recent one, the Society of African Archivists (SAA) inaugurated in 1994 during the Pan-African Conference on Archival Policies and Programs in Africa held in Nigeria’s Abuja from October 31^st to November  5^th . Such associations provide a regulatory platform through development of policies, programs and standards that help to check and control practices in such a field as records and archives administration. For this reason, they lagged behind due to lack of up-to-date developments and practices in the field thus slowing down its own growth in Kenya.

 Associations also offer training seminars and conferences that help to impart skills to participating archivist which could not be easily accessed by the Kenya counterparts during the colonial era.

However, the Kenya National Archives and Documentation Centre was privileged in 1978 to host the round-table conference of the International Council on Archives in Nairobi Kenya (Mnjama, 2003).

6. Poor housing and equipment.

The Kenya National Archives were only migrated from the basement of the old Jogoo House “A” to its present location at the old Commercial Bank building along Moi Avenue in Nairobi during the reign of Dr. Maina Kagombe (1978-1981) as director of KNA. Before then, the old Jogoo House basement was widely seen by many as more of a dumping store for non-current records other than a proper archival facility. The equipment used then were also crude in nature and also of inadequate capacity. The archival staff did not have access to modern equipment due to the combined problems of inadequate funding and low technology.

These two factors did not in any way help in the preservation of records and archives during this period but rather records and archives were exposed to nearly all the elements of destruction. Such digitization equipment as scanners, cameras, microfilming machines and computers were hard and even too expensive to come by or afford. Records were therefore constantly handled by hand during use and during routine management practices. This exposed them to wear and tear thus reducing their life spans. Preservation chemicals such as deacidifiers and even binderies and weather conditioned reservatories did not even exist in Kenya at the time.

7. The problematic nature of format.

Most archival materials were and still are of organic nature, most of them being paper based. This means they are capable of ageing, advancing and deteriorating with time. For this reason, they need special and expensive chemicals and equipment to be treated and handled with for purposes of preserving them. For such a country like Kenya which lies within the tropics, such conditions are worsened by high level of humidity in the atmosphere and high temperatures all round the year. All these conditions combined work to hasten the natural chemical process of decaying records and archival materials. Furthermore, the archival facilities in pre-independent Kenya did not have weather controlled reservatories where all weather conditions can be controlled to enhance records and archives preservation thus, making the whole preservation process even more difficult.

8. Absence of an archival law.

Kenya only got her first archival law, the Kenya National Archives and Documentation Service Act in 1965 through parliament. Prior to this, the colonial administration had operated a small archives repository in Nairobi (Musembi, 1982a). The few records and archival institutions that existed did not have legal description, backing or definition of their services. Legal backing provides for authenticity, serves to promote and also provides confidence to the public and those practicing in a profession about the service being offered. These are very important elements that this early facilities lacked.

9. High levels of illiteracy.

It is only after the Second World War that a substantial number of Kenyans could read and write. This was also the period when the records management practice in Kenya experienced a “records boom” whereby a large number of records began to be produced in different government agencies and departments and in the private sector. Initially very few people could read and write and therefore very few records were being produced mainly by the colonial administrators. Even those few that were produced were used on a very limited scale and thus their demand did not justify for production of very many records.

10. Poor transport and communication network.

Kenya’s underdeveloped system of transport and communication hampered the development and progress of archives and records management during the colonial era. The poor systems did not encourage movement of materials and people from one place to another including records. Communication between the colonial archives repository in Nairobi and other government administrative regions was difficult and therefore most of the records remained where they were created. Thus, they did not receive proper attention needed for preservation. Most were lost, stolen or even easily got destroyed.

THE POST COLONIAL ERA

11. The problem of migrated archives

On the eve of independence, the imperial government opted to remove certain records from the country arguing that it was an not a common practice for a government to hand over its records to another government (Mnjama, 2003). However the main motive behind the exercise was to conceal far away sensitive information on atrocities perpetrated by colonialist against Kenyans. The Kenyan government embarked on retrieving these records even as early as 1963 from Britain. This process was however not completed until later on in 1990 when the government of Kenya closed down the office it had opened at its London High Commission in 19980. By then several microfilm copies, photographs, photocopies and even some original manuscripts had been obtained through donations and purchasing.

The entire process of retrieving Kenya’s migrated records was a lengthy and time consuming exercise and more so an expensive one. This would have well been avoided if the records had been left intact back here in Kenya during independence.

12. Lack of good working relationship with other government agencies.

The KNA Act of 1965 mandated the KNA institution to be the sole custodian of all public records and archives. However, in Mnjama, 2003, an incident is cited whereby officers from the KNA Records Management Survey team in a 1983 report on the former East African Community records expressed dissatisfaction regarding an instance whereby a Kenya Railways official denied them access to their records.

In many other instances, the relationship between KNA and other government agencies is not cordial. For this reason, it becomes very hard if not impossible for the institution to perform its mandated functions. Section 4(2) of the public archives act states; it shall be the  duty of every person responsible for or having custody of any public records to afford to the director or any officer of the service authorized by him reasonable access to such public records and appropriate facilities for the examination and selection thereof and comply without any undue delay with any lawful directions concerning assemblage, safe keeping and preservation of public records or the transfer of such public records to the national archives to form part of the national archives.

This, in the case of practices at the KNA is seldom observed in as much as it amounts to a criminal offence.

13. The challenge of information technology

According to the KNA Act of 1965, public records refer to the records of any government department and of any commission, office, board or any other body established by or under an act of parliament. This definition also includes electronic formats of records as public records. Emphasis is now shifting to e-governance, e-learning and many other e-transactions. Most of these transactions are recorded and stored in electronic information storage formats. The problem comes in when the traditional institutions that have for long been used to processing and preserving paper based documents are now being required to acquire process and preserve electronic information. Some of the problems posed by the electronic information formats include:

1. The ease with which they can be permanently altered.
2. Their dependence on software and hardware which are constantly evolving.
3. Their reliance on power without which they are unusable.
4. There need for special computer skills.

14. The problem of unnecessary programs.

Since the time of independence, KNA has been engaged in certain   activities that have been widely criticized as irrelevant towards the attainment of its set objectives and mandate. For instance during the period 1974- 1981, during Dr. Kagombe Maina’s reign, the institution envisaged programs for retrieval of migrated archives, collection of oral traditions, preservation of the freedom tree, establishment of a documentation center, preservation of sites and monuments and the establishment of an audio-visual archives facility. Most of these were considered non-archival practices and for this reason, the Kenyan government commissioned Ian Maclean, a UNESCO consultant in records management from Australia to evaluate and accordingly advise the government concerning the functions being undertaken by the KNADS. His report concluded that the institution engaged in non-archival practices and for that reason was not able to assist in the development of records management programs for the government.

15. The problem of unassertiveness by KNA.

The KNADS has been criticized for having no strength or fiber in asserting its mandate. For this reason, it has not been accorded its proper role of being the leader in public records management. This is largely due to the reason that the institution had for long only emphasized and concentrated on preservation of archives and records that had passed the appraisal test. Good records management practices during the entire records life cycle is very important for good quality archives. Thus, the institution needs to get involved in records management from the time a record is created to the time it is passed on to the institution for final preservation. There is also need for greater cooperation between the institution and other public agencies if it is to be involved in the entire records life cycle management. If this is achieved then we could say the institution is right on course to achieving it presupposed goals and objectives.

16. The problem of the archival law itself.

The archival law of 1965 has undergone several amendments to make it more up-to-date and more applicable to the ever changing conditions in the field of records and archives management. The act was amended in 1990 and in 2003 yet again. However the act still has got outstanding issues that it does not comprehensively address. These include for instance, the appointment of the Chief executive officer of the institution. It does not clearly define the needed qualifications and above all, no formal training in the field of records and archives administration is required. Furthermore, no mention is made of their training requirement in the field of archives and records management despite having a very well elaborated scheme on their role at the institution.

Interestingly, the syllabus for the proficiency for the clerical officers was amended in 1990 making it mandatory for them to have basic knowledge in registry services, filing and classification systems, indexing and records disposal procedures. This is despite having no mention of qualifications or skills to be possessed by the chief executive.

17. Lack of understanding and appreciation.

Kenya’s archival institution is rarely appreciated and its role in provision and management of information understood by only a handful of people. This is also as true as is the culture in many other public and private institutions. Also, very many people in the public and private sectors who generate vital records on a daily basis have no basic understanding of the records life cycle and requirements of the records disposal act. They are also extremely ignorant of the vital role that can be played by the KNA institution to help them properly manage and preserve records both at the current, semi-current and non-current stages. They are totally uninformed about the records act and for this reason it is recommended that the archival institution should engage in programs that will help to educate public officers and those in the private sector on the requirements and contents of the records act. This would help the institution to have at the end, properly managed non-current records of enduring value and would also facilitate for a smooth transition of the same records to the institution for final preservation.

18. Deterioration of existing infrastructure.

The Kenya National Archives and Documentation Centre is among those government institutions that receive inadequate funding. Thus, facilities and infrastructure at the institution are constantly ageing and deteriorating. Such facilities as weather regulated reservatories, reprographic equipment, microfilming devices, scanners, cameras the bindery and even the building itself need regular and special routine management practices to keep them in form  and efficient. However, this is not possible due to inadequate funding and thus records and archival materials are not well maintained as a result.

19. The problem of records disposal

The procedure for records disposal in Kenya is stipulated in the public archives act (1965, chapter 19) in section 7(1). It requires a public office to seek permission from the director of the KNADS or his authorized representative who shall then seek permission from the minister in charge before the records are destroyed. However, in some offices this procedure is not followed and even if the attention of the KNADS director is sought under such circumstances, it may be difficult for him as it is not easy for one department of a government to prosecute a sister department of the same government.

Sections 26 and 27 however, allow financial officers to destroy certain financial records after a certain period of time with the exception of those that are still subject to auditing and those with archival value.  It is also a problematic issue for most personnel departments to destroy employees’ records even when their time is up in the registry especially those needed to process payment of pension money. For this reason many are not willing to dispose of these records despite the problem of taking up a lot of floor space in the registry.

20. The problem of conservative archivists.

The early staff at the KNA has been criticized for being contented and feeling complacent with the little amount of traffic they always receive. They seldom put in their personal effort to woe more users to the institution. For instance, most college and university students rarely visit the institution in the course of writing their theses and dissertations. Only a few know of its importance. It is mainly visited by the same old users a majority being journalist, experienced writers and researchers. Furthermore, they did not keep track of activities and preferences of their patrons and for this reason, they did not record any progress and developments made by their patrons as a result of using these services and their impact on them.

CONCLUSION

In as much as the archives and records management services have had their better share of problems, this is not to say it has not made any progress at all. For instance, the KNA is a very strong records and archives management facility widely revered in the entire Great Lakes region of Central and Eastern Africa. Many other issues however, herein not discussed, are still posing challenges to the practice of records and archives management and if well addressed by both the government, the archival institution itself and other major stake holders the institution and the larger field of archives and records management can perform even much far better in the provision and preservation of information in Kenya.

REFERENCES

1.      Musembi, M.  primitive archival practices in colonial Kenya. Harare: ECARBICA, 1982a.

2.      Mnjama, N. Archives and records management in Kenya: problems and prospects. Http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0956-5698.html , Records management Journal. Retrieved 19 Mar. 2010.

3.      Kemoni, Henry N [et al]. Obstacles to utilization of information held by archival institution: a review literature. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/281013-0104.htm, Retrieved 19th Mar. 2010.

FACTORS FUELING HEAVY DEMAND FOR INFORMATION

Information is an assemblage of data that has been processed, has meaning, can be used to communicate and is usually recorded in a kind of media for purposes of dissemination. According to Wikipedia.org information is defined as a collection of related data that has been processed into a format that is understandable by its intended users.
Information has become a critical aspect of our lives and the society at large; therefore, each and every person must acquire information to make any substantial developments in their lives. This has provoked an urge to seek information in almost each and every person in the society today. This urge is driven by certain factors of our lives and some of them include:

• Population increase.
  
• Education
  
• Emerging issues
  
• Technological advancements
  
• Natural disasters and pandemics
  
• Religion
  
• Administration
  
• Employment
  
• Intellectual curiosity
  
• General needs
  

1. Population increase:

It refers to the growth in number of people living in a given geographical area.
An increase in the number of people living in a given region directly translates to an increase in the number of people seeking for information.
This comes about due to several factors that emerge as a result of population increase; administrators of the population will develop information seeking behavior for the reasons of satisfying their people in their administrative roles. This may be in terms of food security, housing problems and congestion on social amenities. Ordinary people in society will also seek information to help them solve their personal problems that may include food scarcity, higher unemployment rates, increased insecurity, poor housing facilities among a host of many other problems. In the end, population increase drives people to start seeking information whereas the experienced information consumers will increase their demand for information to satisfy their increased demands for information.

2. Education:

According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (7th ed., 2005) education, refers to the formal system of teaching training and learning especially in schools and colleges to improve knowledge and acquire skills. These knowledge and skills are considered fundamental in society and the well being of an individual.
In the teaching process, instructors require knowledge and information to prepare for their lessons and material for dissemination to their students.

Students also require information to expound on what they have been taught in class so as to expand their knowledge base. Students have also been noted to seek more information during examination periods so as to excel in evaluation of what they have learnt.
They also seek information when undertaking research projects e.g. when writing theses or dissertations for partial awarding their degrees. Faculty members are also constantly engaged in research with the purpose of expanding knowledge in their areas of specialization. All these requires for a constant demand for information.
Introduction of new curriculum and fields of knowledge in an education system would also call for one to get more information for purposes of remaining relevant and up to date the requirements of the new system.

It has also been noted that many a times, education stimulates curiosity in people and the urge to seek more information about a subject that he/she has been introduced to in class and finds it more interesting and worth spending more time to read and learn more about it. Furthermore, education increases literacy levels in the society. This also directly translates to more people in society seeking for information because literate people are better known to consume more information than the illiterate. In its entirety, education generates a great demand for information as the system is in itself dependent on dissemination and acquisition of information.

3. Emerging issues:

These refer to new developments and emergence of various aspects that draw a substantial amount of interest to people in society. This may also involve current affairs that draw a lot of interest from the public, for instance the publication of the draft constitution at the time of this writing has generated unprecedented interest and there are a lot of people currently who are seeking information about this document and its contents.

The emergence of diseases that have never ailed humanity in the past and other calamities is another factor that draws a lot of demand for information. For instance the occurrence of H1N1 (swine flu) and H5N1 (avian flu) sparked a lot of people both in the research field, doctors and even administrators to seek information concerning management and treatment of these new strains of flu. Occurrences of disasters like the Tsunami that rocked Asia and other parts of the world also sparked a lot of people into seeking information about mitigation of such events should they recur in future. From a general aspect, emerging issues are constantly generated in the society and therefore will continue to draw a lot of demand for information.

4. Technological advancements:

This refers to improvements experienced in the field of information technology such as advanced computer systems with superior capabilities that generate information in a timely and more effective way than previous systems.
The field of information technology is a very dynamic one. People in this field e.g. computer engineers and technicians constantly require information to find out what new developments have come about that can help them better render their services to people in other fields.
Technological advancements have also been accredited with improved systems of acquiring and disseminating information to people. Therefore, more people are able to access and disseminate information.
Information consumers are also faced with the need to acquire technical knowhow of using information technology systems as information is largely disseminated through these systems. For them to be able to use these systems effectively, they also need information on how to use and navigate their way around the digital environment. Similarly, information custodians will also need information concerning operation and usability of various systems for them to be well positioned to assist their clients during retrieval of information. The dynamic nature of the field of information technology is therefore an important contributor to a heavy demand for information as people from all walks of life are constantly exposed to new developments in the field every day.

5. Natural disasters and pandemics:

These are usually, uncontrollable natural occurrences that cause extensive destruction of both property and human lives. Some examples of natural disasters include hurricanes Katrina in places like New Orleans, San Francisco in the USA. This creates demand for information in the sense that people who are probable victims will seek to know when they are likely to strike so they can plan and stay when they are prepared to mitigate anticipated damage.

Droughts and long rain seasons e.g. Elnino rains too are a threat to the well being of humanity and therefore have also contributed to the demand for information. For instance, this is probably the reason why weather forecasters constantly analyze weather patterns and disseminate information concerning expected weathers patterns. In situations of drought and hunger information is sought by administrators to determine how many people and from which regions will require attention. People will also seek information concerning availability of food and how to have food security in future. All these factors combined will eventually lead to an increased demand for information because are constantly wary of natural disasters and pandemics and aiming to stay safe from them.

6. Religion:

It refers to the belief in the existence of a Supreme Being or beings and the practice of all that involve the worshiping of this Supreme Being. Religion is one other factor that creates demand for information in society. This is because people need reliable information that will enhance a better understanding of God and also help to strengthen their faith and beliefs. This helps to attain an inner satisfaction and a state of well being.

Some people also need information to defend their faith and beliefs. For instance, a Christian might need information and even quote from the Bible to drive a point home when trying to convince people concerning a certain claim. Similarly, a Muslim may quote the Quran to drive his point home. The great demand for information on religious matters is also supported by the fact that the Bible is the world’s most published and widely read book and has the least reprography restrictions. The fact that religious information is required by people from all walks of life and at all levels of development means that religious information is disseminated and consumed both in social and educational circles.

7. Administration:

It refers to the government system of exercising power over its subjects within a given geographical area.
Population increase and growth in complexity of the society brings about the need for administration.
It involves application of laws and regulations that determine how people co-exist peacefully with each other in society. Administrators require information concerning such facts as the number of people within their jurisdiction for better service delivery and planning for the people. This explains why the government of Kenya conducts a national census on a periodical basis of every 10 years to obtain the actual head count of its people.

The ordinary people also need information concerning the government’s policies and regulations some of which include taxation requirements or duties and responsibilities bestowed upon the citizenry by the government of the day.
Both administrators and their subjects are thus a major factor that contributes to the heavy demand for information as information is a primary requirement in their day to day endeavours.

EFFECTS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ON THE PUBLISHING INDUSTRY

THE advent of information technology has generated a lot of anxiety and a heated debate ensued in the publishing industry. The ongoing debate on the fate of the traditional book and the entire publishing industry the world over is indeed very polarised. However, an impartial scrutiny of the discussion and information available on the topic reveals that the socio-economic impacts of information technology on the industry are both positive and negative. Even as the society becomes increasingly techno-savvy, the traditional book shall still retain its place upon the upsurge of information technology.

THE publishing industry was in itself born of information technology. When Johannes Guttenberg (a German inventor) first invented the printing press in Europe in 1440AD, this was a major step in information technology. This invention gave birth to the printed word. The publishing industry as we know of it today had just begun. As the use of the new invention spread across Europe and eventually the entire world, a great demand for paper never witnessed before ensued. This gave rise to the paper industry, a major player in the publishing industry. Consequently, jobs were being created and the basic infrastructure laid for the modern publishing industry we know of today.

IN most of the world’s developing countries like Kenya, the printed word played a major role in the introduction of modern religion to the pagan societies as the missionaries called them. When Ndia Kuu, Swahili for Highway Press, was put up as East Africa’s first publishing house in the 1940s it mainly churned out religious materials used in spreading the gospel. At this time, most of the materials were in black and white. Neither the publisher nor the readers were feeling any adverse effects of this technology.

HOWEVER, the invention and introduction of computers into the publishing world was a major turning point. At this point, the mechanical printing press was computerised and all around the publishing house, systems were automated. Major players at this time only feared for job losses just as was the case in many other industries. To many, liberalisation brought about by information technology was unforeseen.

TO publishers and authors, the publishing process has been simplified a great deal. The authors’ process of preparing a manuscript is now more efficient than ever before as he can now write and pre-edit the manuscript and electronically mail it to the publisher. For the publisher, editing is much easier now. A word processer program (like Ms word ) will electronically save the manuscript and the editor will make as much adjustments on the text as he/she wants without having to retype the work and reprint the whole work all over again.

NOT to forget, technology has made work much easier for the people in the production department. Technology now allows the production department to run out many copies of a text at speed never witnessed before. Initially the printing press had to be physically attended to by a technician who would then set the number of copies to be run and adjusting text alignment. Today, a desktop publishing program like Adobe page maker that enables one to entirely use WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) will allow one to do all these in the comfort of their chair on a keyboard. This phenomenon also applies to running out of reprints. This will come about when a publisher has sold out all copies of a title when there is still demand for it in the market.

TECHNOLOGY has further eased the process of disposing of of published materials. Numerous online facilities have come up and made it easier for publishers to market their titles via the internet. This has resulted to improved sales. Using the World Wide Web technology, avenues like e-bay and bookfinder.com have made it possible for publishers to sell their work worldwide. In close relation, books journals and periodicals have been published online. This has given rise to universal availability of publications (UAP). With this development, one can remotely access information from a journal or a digitized book without necessarily having the physical form of the resource material. This is indeed cost effective to the reader and to the publisher because it cuts out on the distribution costs of published materials.

FURTHERMORE, it can’t be disputed that information technology has pulled down production cost of information resources in the publishing industry. Apart from cutting down on the distribution costs, it has also cut down the use of massive amounts of paper in the industry. This is friendly to the environment and cost effective all at a go.

IT should also be noted that the upsurge of information technology into the publishing world has resulted to emergence of different formats of packaging information. Unlike the traditional book we know of today, the blind can now read using Braille and also listen to books “talk.” All shrewd publishers in the industry have embraced these developments and information packaging formats have evolved a great deal. These include audio books on magnetic tapes and optic disks popularly known as CD's and DVD s. These formats are less bulky and take up lesser storage space. Thus, it is much easier for information custodians to maintain them than it is for the traditional book.

IN the recent past, developments in online social networking have brought about uncertainty to many publishers. Even though social networking sites have been converted to marketing avenues by some shrewd publishers, doomsayers have foretold doom for publishers in a very near future. The doomsayers of the traditional book have cited death of the reading culture especially among the young generation. Apart from being marketing avenues, publishers can also use these sites (facebook.com, twitter.com, myspace.com etc) to create reading groups where people can discuss with friends books they have read and even share ideas and views about different books.

IN persistence, the doomsayers have cited a host of many other problems inflicted on the publisher by the advent of information technology. For instance, information technology is very expensive. With all the efficiency in the book production process, the average book has never cost as much as it does today. This is probably due to the high cost of infrastructure needed to automate the book production process. This involves purchase of expensive computer hardware and programs. It also involves training of professional information technology specialists whose services are very expensive. All these eventually lead to high production costs.

IN almost every society, there is an increasing demand for intellectual and information freedom. Censorship, banning of books and certain writers’ articles in papers and harassment of government critics, is today being fought (almost successfully) using information technology. Liberalization of the publishing industry through the internet now allows all sorts of writers to get published with an unlimited audience to read their works, either good or bad according to any
standards. This has however, greatly eroded the reserved African culture and norms. Today for example, pornography is being generated and used at a rate never witnessed before, all in the name of intellectual freedom and right to information.

IN the same spirit of intellectual freedom and right to information, piracy of copyrighted materials has undergone tremendous growth, all because of information technology advancements. Music publishers (producers) and their artistes have borne the brunt of this vice. With all the computers around, DVD writers, flash disks and mobile handsets all reinforced with the Bluetooth technology, it is hard to come by an individual who will spend a dime to purchase an original copy of music especially among the informed young generation. In the book industry, the number of unauthorised reprography of copyrighted material has skyrocketed. This is because of photocopiers and printers stationed at every stage one desire s to find one. Ironically it is the higher institutions of learning that have been accused to be the biggest perpetrators. Just because of these technological advancements, copyright holders have lost billions of their hard earned royalties to undeserving pirates.

IN the world of entertainment, technology has been accused of adversely affecting the publishing industry. Even though the internet, radio and TV have always been used by publishers for marketing books, things are still not looking up yet for the publisher. The internet radio and TV are taking up all the time people would use to read. Long time ago people who wanted to be entertained went to theatres or picked up a book and read. Today, the internet radio and TV have taken up all this time altogether. Today’s generation is ever on the lookout for the best TV, radio or internet site. There seems to be an unlimited liberty for entertainment sources for one to choose from. If one is boring you simply switch to a more interesting one. Books come a long way down the list of entertainment sources. This is killing the reading culture. It directly translates to lower revenues and it is feared some publishers could be edged out of business in a very near future.

FURTHERMORE, established publishers in many countries have all throughout their existence been dependent on text book publishing. With the lucrative business in the textbook market, they heavily relied on schools for their survival. However, today almost every book is being digitized. Companies like Google Inc. have taken it upon themselves to create a database of digital books whereby every book considered to be of interest to the USA shall be digitized.In fact today,one can search digital text of over 7 million books through Google Books according to www.books.google.com. Almost every book being published today comes with an audio or digital version. Many schools are likely to adopt the digital versions due to their cost effectiveness and efficiency when using them. In such a case, many publishers of paper books will have to be creative or find alternative means of staying afloat in business.

IT is also true that information in a book is very hard to update, is prone to wear and tear and books carry a very limited amount of information as compared to today's digital versions. However, one set-back that comes with digital information is that it is absent in absence of power. One can not access it without electricity. In many developing countries, this is a major challenge as electricity is still an elusive phenomena to a majority. In this case, people in these remote parts of the world are still reading the traditional paper book and their schools too, will continue buying the text book for a very long time.

FINALLY, we may accept that technology has dealt a big blow to the publishing industry. However, it is not true that the publishing industry and the traditional book shall be phased out in the hands of information technology. At least, not for now. This is because the effects caused are both positive and negative, in fact the two can be viewed to be in existence symbiotically,each shouldering another accordingly.

LIBRARY AUTOMATION: IMPLEMENTATION OF CDS/ISIS AND KOHA

THE OPAC SYSTEM ON CDS/ISIS

The current Moi library OPAC system does not operate on any network system. This is because when new materials are acquired, they have to be entered one by one into every computer system as they are not connected to a single database in a server from which the rest of the computers can access. This means that one cannot search the library catalogue if he/she is not using one of the terminals in the library. The OPAC system only shows those materials which the library has acquired and does not show the searcher if an item is out of the library on loan. This current OPAC system is run by CDS/ISIS (controlled database system/integrated set of information systems) which is a software developed by UNESCO in 1985 to meet the expressed needs of libraries to be able to streamline their information processing activities by using modern technology in a less expensive way. The Moi library previously used DOs before switching to Windows. Other libraries using CDS/ISIS have the capacity of running the software on other multiple web based platforms like Unix, Linux, Mac OS X or on C-ROM.
STEPS TAKEN IN IMPLEMENTING THE OPAC SYSTEM
1. The library began by identifying the need for library automation.
2. Determining the relevant requirements installing the OPAC system i.e. hardware, software, human resource and finances.
3. Drawing a plan for the work flow of the system.
4. Real installation of the system. The library hired about 60 skilled personnel who were specialized in different library activities like cataloguing, acquisition and circulation. This also included retrospective conversion of the old card catalogue format to machine readable format. This was done by temporary personnel who typed the entries into computer databases which took about a year to complete.
5. The process of cataloguing new collections and retrospective conversion of already catalogued materials was done co-currently
This whole process of installing the CDS/ISIS system took about two years.
THE OPAC SYSTEM ON KOHA
However, the Moi library is in the process of installing a new open-source Integrated Library system (ILS) called KOHA that is currently distributed by Strathmore University in Kenya. This will allow the Moi library catalogue to be searched online. The KOHA software system was previously developed in the New Zealand by Katipo Communications Ltd and first deployed for use in Jan. 2000 according to koha.org.
FEATURES OF AN IDEAL ILS
A COMPETENT ILS system is vital in the process of carrying out library automation. It may include features such as:

1. Simple and clear user interface.
   
   
2. Circulation and borrower management system.
   
   
3. A full acquisitions system including budgets and pricing information with supplier currency conversion.
   
   
4. The ability to cope with an unlimited number of branches patrons, item categories, currency and other varied data.
   
   
5. Serials control system.
   
   
6. Reading list for patrons
   
   

The Moi library intends to implement this system which will finally be accessible via the IP address 192.168.3 or for easy remembrance, www.maktaba.Ku.ac.ke.. This will allow logged in users to access services such as:

1. Search the library catalogue online.
   
   
2. Reserving or putting a book on hold online.
   
   
3. Checking when a book is due for returning or extending time for overdue books online.
   
   
4. Checking out accumulated debt for long overdue books.
   
   For logged in librarians the software will allow them to:

1. To do copy cataloguing and classification, If subscribed, from the library of congress
   
   
2. Send mail to other staff members using the same system
   
   
3. Maintain user profiles for better service delivery e.g. seeing a readers borrowing history.
   
   
4. Maintain an automatic charging system for long overdue books by each user.
   
   The OPAC system is vital in the carrying out the various functions of the Moi library. It has become easier for users of the Moi library to retrieve materials from the library by only keying in the fundamental characters. But in Moi library the CDS/ISIS is the most used since it is easily available and most users are conversant with use of computers.